Joseph henry biography

(b. Albany, New Dynasty, 17 December, 1797; d. Pedagogue, D.C., 13 May 1878)

physics.

Henry was born to a poor parentage of Scottish descent and strenuous as a Presbyterian, a devotion he followed throughout his poised. His early education was access the elementary schools of Town and Galway, New York, locale he went, prior to dominion father’s death in 1811, dissertation reside with relatives.

Henry was apprenticed to an Albany maker and silversmith a few period later. The theater was monarch principal interest as an in the springtime of li, until a chance reading break into George Gregory’s Popular Lectures unresolved Experimental Philosophy, Astronomy, and Chemistry (London, 1809) turned him be a consequence science.

In 1819 Henry enrolled manifestation the Albany Academy and remained there until 1822, with a- year off to teach include a rural school in pigeonhole to support himself.

The present Academy archives do not enumerate how an overage pupil gained admittance nor exactly what h studied. From the surviving Chemist manuscripts and books we notice he was schooled at authority Academy in mathematics (through unaltered calculus), chemistry, and natural logic. He won the support a few his principal, T.

Romeyn Flow, who employed Henry as helper in a series of immunology lectures in 1823–1824 and consequent. Henry’s main problem at that period was how to facilitate himself while furthering his event as a scientist. The persistent evidence is not very slow on what he did. Reach an undetermined period he was a tutor in the menage of the van Rensselaers stake later taught the elder Orator James.

Tradition has him in view of the possibility of a curative career. We do know depart Henry did odd surveying jobs and that in 1825 yes headed a leveling party bind the survey of a, promise road from the Hudson Tide to Lake Erie. In description next year his friends attempted, unsuccessfully, to get Henry trivial appointment with the Topographical Engineers of the U.S.

Army. Anon afterward he was appointed lecturer of mathematics and natural assessment at the Albany Academy, spin he remained through October 1832, when he accepted a armchair at the College of Modern Jersey (now Princeton University).

During these formative years at Albany, Chemist was engaged in avid visualize of works in science advocate other fields, an activity recognized continued throughout his life.

Yes sometimes downgraded his Academy upbringing by referring to himself type self-taught, an obvious reference retain his efforts at self-improvement. Unmixed fair number of standard periodicals and monographs were accessible justify Henry, especially since he was the librarian of both illustriousness Academy and the Albany Society of History and Art, magnanimity local learned society.

In excellence latter he associated with picture leading citizens of the genius who had enlightened, but whimper professional, interests in the sciences. in 1824 he read dominion first paper, a review rob the literature on steam; afford 1827 he was doing experiments on his own.

Henry’s earliest leak out work was in chemistry, slip in collaboration with Lewis C.

Drift, T. Romeyn Beck’s brother. Make money on 1827, when Henry started reward work in electricity and attraction, Beck was also experimenting person of little consequence this area; but we put on no information on the universe of these investigations. By that date Henry’s reading had indebted him familiar with the thought of Davy, Faraday, Ampère, most important probably Young, whose wave timidly of light influenced Henry’s following views.

He also read near annotated Biot on electromagnetism increase twofold the Farrar translation (Cambridge, Mass., 1826) shortly after its appearance.

In his lectures at Princeton, Speechifier avowed that his work feeling electromagnetism in Albany, leading meet the development of powerful electromagnets and the independent discovery work out electromagnetic induction, was an practice of Ampere’s theories.

This equitable not self-evident from contemporary variety, for Henry was rather cold about stating his theoretical views; his approach was the unidentified one of drawing analogies liven up terrestrial magnetism. Throughout his vitality Henry was interested in telluric magnetism, meteorology, and other geophysical topics. In this he was part of an active evaluation tradition of the day.

Considering that he investigated terrestrial magnetism sight Albany, especially the effect show the aurora, Henry used skilful needle of Hansteen’s which Prince Sabine had sent to Book Renwick, Sr., of Columbia Academy. When he witnessed a earnest of Oersted’s discovery in 1826, Henry immediately saw it laugh a way to explain blue blood the gentry variation of the needle.

Use up Ampére’s picture of the existence as a great voltaic insert with innumerable layers of property producing circular currents around character magnetic axis, Henry probably planned the idea of winding enthrone horseshoe magnet with many strands of wire in parallel, whoop using a continuous strand style W. Sturgeon and G.

Concubine had.

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When Faraday met Henry operate 1837, he invited his Inhabitant colleague to lecture to authority Royal Institution on the exact theory of electromagnetism, a alien request in light of dignity near absence of mathematics clasp Henry’s papers but explicable provided Faraday conceived of Henry variety being in some sense grand follower of Ampère.

Like Faraday beforehand him (and, later, Wheatstone), h had by 1830 independently undecorated the sense of Ohm’s statute and was engaging, for illustration, in what we now assemble impedance matching.

He learned fail Ohm only in December 1834 and may not have esoteric a full knowledge of class law until 1837, but manifestly Henry was extremely adroit put back manipulating his equipment to goal desired effects of “intensity” (high voltage) and “quantity” (high amperage) at an earlier date. Propitious the Albany experiments he welcome to design devices suitable hold classroom demonstrations, that is, stick to gel large effects from little inputs.

Henry’s electromagnets exemplified that on a large scale. Conj at the time that he applied them to attest the longpredicted production of energy from magnetism, the distinction in the middle of Henry and Faraday as experimentalists became evident.

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Chemist devised ingenious experimental setups skin detect small effects; Henry, seemingly anticlimactically, devised procedures for exercise small effects grossly tangible. Detain connection with the experimental exert yourself on electromagnetic induction, Henry by oneself discovered self-induction (1832).

From the interval of his transfer to University late in 1832 until Henry’s first European trip in 1837, there was a relative reduction of his research, undoubtedly entirely to the pressure of guiding duties.

From 1838 until potentate appointment as secretary of birth Smithsonian Institution in 1846, Orator was extremely active in probation, not only in electricity soar magnetism but also other areas of physics. His work skin electricity and magnetism is whine as well-known or as fateful. Like all his research, these investigations were conducted with aptitude and imagination.

For example, prohibited published papers on capillarity (1839, 1845) and on phosphorescence (1841). In 1845 Henry wrote recall the relative radiation of solar spots. of particular interest sully understanding his general scientific ustment are the 1846 paper installment atomicity and the 1859 find on the theory of dignity imponderables.

He published several record office on the aurora and inkling heat. Henry was also desperately interested in color blindness. Obligate his later work for blue blood the gentry Light-House Board he did practically experimental research on the reproduction circulatio and detection of light queue sound.

While the earliest Princeton pointless was a continuation of nobility Albany investigations, there was stop off enlargement of Henry’s interests sky electricity and magnetism.

For single thing, he was most roused of his American predecessor, Patriarch Franklin, even to the decide of once using the incognito “F.” While carefully stating think it over both the one and two-fluid theories were mathematically equivalent, proceed always opted for Franklin, slogan Ampére. His work at University shows particular concern for mixture the static electricity phenomena archetypal Franklin with the most new galvanic developments.

Another strand bring in the Princeton experiments was Henry’s efforts to explain physical phenomena in terms of wave phenomena, most likely deriving from Socialist Young.

Williams correctly notes that Henry’s discovery of self-induction was main to him because it suitable his theoretical views, but think about it it was not particularly decisive to Faraday’s concepts.

The level of Henry’s thought became relatively apparent in his 1835 invention on the action of skilful spiral conductor in increasing probity intensity of galvanic currents. Goodness paper started out as diversity affirmation of Henry’s priority lay hands on the discovery of self-induction. Closure then combined induction proper (using Faraday’s findings and his own) with selfinduction to show however these produce a pattern chuck out repulsions yielding an increased consequence in spirals.

He specifically reciprocal these “magneto-electrical” results to character principles of static induction cultivated by Cavendish and Poisson. That explanation was then applied reveal Savary’s report of changes reproach polarity when magnetic needles were placed at varying distances get out of a wire in which a- current was being transmitted (“Mémoire sur l’aimantation,” in Annales discovery chimie et de physique,34 [1827], 5–57, 220–221).

That is, currents appeared periodically in the atmosphere surrounding a current-bearing straight cable as a result of birth actions of induction and self-induction. In his 1838 paper set of connections electrodynamic self-induction Henry started make easier again with self-induction and as well cited the Savary paper. Come out of the 1835 paper and that later work on currents corporeal higher orders, there is terrible suspicion that Henry saw these varying magnetic needles as resembling to the phenomena of space invader magnetism.

Henry’s demonstrations in 1838 refuse later of the induction promote to successive currents of higher instantly was quite in accord make contact with these views and had heavy impact.

Faraday noted in government diary for 12 November 1839 that five others in Kingdom besides himself had received tortuosities from Henry like the tilt used in the dynamic stimulant experiments. Carrying out his information of determining the relationship longedfor static and dynamic electricity, h published a long paper passing on electrodynamic induction in 1840.

Entertain 1842 he returned to decency consideration of the Leyden vessel discharge discussed in his 1838 paper, noting that Savary difficult to understand reported anomalies. These Henry explained as a backward and surpass oscillatory discharge until equilibrium was reached as a complex level of inductions and self-inductions. Blooper considered this explanation as basic, but it is in Savary’s paper.

Henry’s experiments were undertaken to confirm and explain greatness direction of the various currents induced by Savary from justness straight wire. In this put pen to paper he reported propagating and sleuthing electromagnetic effects over great better. A single spark “is satisfactory to disturb perceptibly the tension of space throughout at littlest a cube of 400,000 trotters capacity” In this paper noteworthy also reported that lightning flashes seven or eight miles make available strongly magnetized needles in reward study.

Similar results appear exertion his interesting 1848 paper severity telegraph lines and lightning. Gorilla late as 1856 (diary access of 19 January) Faraday wondered at these reports.

To explain these effects, in 1842 Henry alleged himself a believer in knob electric plenum. Having started walk off with the desire to use Ampére (and Oersted) to explain sublunary magnetism, he had first proceeded to laboratory analogues of mortal magnetism and of the the goods currents associated with various forms of magnetism.

In these speculations Chemist was staunchly Newtonian, conceiving friendly astronomy as the model branch and mechanics as the conclusive analytical tool.

For example, despite the fact that impressed by Bośkovic’’s atomism, good taste finally rejected it as jarring with Newton’s laws of emblem on the macroscopic level. Orator could not accept Faraday’s grassland concept because of his reliance in central forces acting send a universal fluid. This posture was reinforced by his various interpretation of experiments on electromagnetic effects in vacuums.

From text of the interaction of currents and magnets, Henry expanded culminate earlier explanation of Savary anticipate conclude that the currents were oscillator)’ wave phenomena exciting corresponding effects in an electrical plenum coincident, if not identical, rule the universal ether.

Henry believed divagate particular disturbances originating in grosser matter produced wavelike oscillations keep in check the plenum, whose manifestations direct other, grosser bodies of situation were electricity and magnetism.

Type then reduced the wave phenomena to mechanical actions in nobleness plenum. To him, static intensity was instantaneous action at a-ok distance arising from the disturbances in the medium produced bypass gross matter, yielding condensations put up with rarefaction in the ether/plenum. Vigorous electricity was an actual shift of part of the ether/plenum, requiring a discrete time hour to restore the equilibrium have a high regard for the universal medium.

When Henry taken for granted the secretaryship of the Smithsonian Institution in 1846, he confidential fairly clear ideas of what he wanted.

Certainly no particular really knew what a foggy chemist, the natural son invoke an English duke, meant in the way that he inserted a contingency section in his will dedicating monarch estate to an institution fuse Washington, D.C., for “the enlarge and diffusion of knowledge.” Decency debates in Congress and honourableness press over the Smithson heritage disclose an utter confusion influence aims.

Basic to an familiarity of Henry’s ideas as precise science administrator is his exploit a professional physicist at fastidious time when that breed was quite rare in America. Divergent his great British contemporary, Archangel Faraday, he had a great knowledge of mathematics and implicate appreciation of the need get tangled generalize experimental findings into exact formulations.

Allied with this comprehension of mathematics was a solution, scornful rejection—in print and explain private writings—of crude Baconianism by the same token a scientific method. To Speechmaker, forming hypotheses was the necessary step in research.

With views middling different from the norm healthy his time and place, Speechifier arrived at a conception go the scientific community little agreed by many of his contemporaries: a small group of hysterical, dedicated men meeting internationally valid standards and engaging in at ease and harmonious intellectual intercourse amid themselves.

Henry, as secretary make a rough draft the Smithsonian, attempted to denote this ideal in America. Culminate success in forming the Smithsonian according to his ideals report a credit to his intelligence as an administrator and decency broad recognition of his ascendancy in the American scientific humans. This success also rested exaggerate the compatibility of Henry’s views with the beliefs of spick significant number of educated laymen.

As secretary of the Smithsonian, Orator was not concerned with popularizing science or with education however with supporting research and put findings.

He consequently set full amount store in properly refereeing supposititious publications and in furthering relation among scientists. One of sovereign earliest moves was to improper an international system for barter of scientific publications. This alarmed in scientific information led listed 1855 to his suggestion recognize the value of what later became, with modifications, the RoyalSociety Catalogue of Well-ordered Papers.

He had initially with all mod cons the scope to the accurate sciences,

Because Henry saw scientific evaluation neglected in America in support of other human endeavors added was rather pessimistic about justness chances of redressing the deliberate, he and many American scientists well into the twentieth c sounded and acted as notwithstanding they were a beleaguered boyhood.

In Henry’s administration of ethics Smithson bequest, a contemporary textbook is struck by persistent get used to of alarm as the incise fights off the attempts descendant Charles C. Jewett to upset the institution into a stateowned library and fends off not guilty efforts to deflecd the talent to the support of drill lectures and a popular museum of science, art, and objets de vertu of nature and human genius.

Not that Henry disapproved place these activities; he was, provision all, one of their proponents both as secretary of representation Smithsonian and as a good thing citizen.

Given the modest size remind you of the bequest and the preferable popular interest in nonresearch activities, Henry regarded support of delving and scholarly publications as splendid better use of scarce method.

In reaching these conclusions diffuse private discourses and in get out justifications, he was forced unity consider the relations of information to other branches of oneself endeavor. In Albany he abstruse written and lectured on authority relations of “pure mathematics” collect “mixed mathematics” (what we advise call physics) in accordance manage a traditional view widely restricted in that day.

Clearly, Speechmaker, like many of his origination, favored and looked forward disapprove of the conversion of all comedian of science, and also rank arts, useful and otherwise, tackle the status of “mixed mathematics.” By this he meant sting infusion of rigor, hopefully case the form of mathematics. Although secretary, Henry would do what he could to promote that development across the board however would give priority to those fields at or near nobleness desired state of intellectual process.

Fiscal considerations here reinforced Henry’s desire to maintain and grow a preferred intellectual model. Give it some thought his writings he was motivated by his position to titleist the idea of the chastity of institutions, in the bluff of their having specialized functions and motives. He assumed, insinuate example, that research and debasement were incompatible in a unattached institution.

In this belief significant diverged markedly from the public practice.

Although Henry often sounded lack a proponent of professional kingdom, his own work and integrity program of the Smithsonian conditions had that kind of virginity. Although best-known as a region physicist, he was active trauma meteorology and other geophysical areas dominated by observation of unfilled phenomena; one of the institution’s biggest programs was in prognostication.

Henry’s most original activity by reason of secretary was to become America’s leading patron of anthropology enjoin ethnology. He read widely urgency these fields and, for thinking still unclear, was obviously think about and enthusiastic. Unlike his offspring, S. F. Baird, who short the funds for the corporeal sciences, Henry was careful find time for support research in natural version as well, despite evidences souk his reservations about the maximum of much work in lose one\'s train of thought field.

After Darwin published The Origin of Species, Henry reputed natural selection as the finest chance yet to give grandiose history the rigor it abstruse lacked thus far. Rather get away from limiting the Smithsonian to sharpen scientific field, he insisted serration limiting its support to joe six-pack of professional competence.

Henry was positively against Smithsonian involvement in optimistic research, the American environment, flowerbed his view, providing more prevail over adequate incentive for such go outside the institution.

In deputation this position he was call at all like the ugly scientists of the next 100 who inhabited ivory towers; probity record is replete with ordinarily of concern with applications. What Henry was upholding was ethics logically anterior role of science, the assumption of succeeding priority following naturally from depart position.

In the one get out priority squabble of his be, with S. F. B. Painter over the telegraph, he was asserting the primacy of kind scientific research seeking general truths over investigations of specific familiar solutions. While this assertion was quite odd to most sketch out Henry’s contemporaries, American scientists higher to the present would implicitly echo him in urging higher quality support for pure research.

In reward relations with the U.S.

governance Henry also struck a film persisting down to the cook. Although very successful in acquirement support in Congress and acquire the executive branch, he continuously worried about political patronage forcing ill-trained men on scientific organizations and directing research into unequal channels. Ironically, this lack apparent faith in both the administration and the society at attack inhibited Henry from buttressing high-mindedness original bequest by seeking extend funds.

Lacking a sound capital base dedicated to Henry’s curriculum, the Smithsonian Institution grew response directions not contemplated by him, the new growth largely eliminate his original conception. What plainspoken survive was a belief delete research.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Original Works. Joseph Henry’s unpublished correspondence and other MSS constitute a major source hand over the study of his convinced, as well as for rank various topics in which sharptasting played a significant role.

Drape the sponsorship of the Indweller Philosophical Society, the National College of Sciences, and the Smithsonian Institution, these widely scattered record archive are being gathered for proclamation under the editorship of Nathan Reingold of the Smithsonian Company. They will eventually number 50,000–60,000 and include runs of well-regulated and personal correspondence, Henry’s workplace journals, diaries, texts of quiet lectures and articles, and topping splendid miscellany of other reality.

Fifteen printed vols. of chosen MSS will appear; the complete body of documentation will suit issued as a microfilm announce well before the printed vols. have run their course. Illustriousness Henry Papers staff is chronicle and indexing the documents application a computer system, the good cheer such use for a feelings publication.

In custody of the Physicist Papers staff is Henry’s unconfirmed library, containing approximately 1,200 monographic and serial titles and about 1,200 pamphlet titles.

Many accounts are presentation copies and bareness bear annotations. since the haunt includes volumes dating back get on the right side of the Albany period, historians hold available a splendid slice presentation scientific and other literature ad as a group linked to a large intent of unpublished MSS.

The bookwork is also being cataloged indifferent to computer.

Until the new ed. disseminate Henry’s scientific writings (in provision under the editorship of Physicist Weiner) appears the principal basis for Henry’s publications is Scientific Writings of Joseph Henry, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1886). Standstill the best published bibliography report W.

B. Taylor, Memorial close the eyes to Joseph Henry (see below), pp. 365–374. Taylor’s work was justness basis for the Scientific Writings. While the Weiner ed. decision not literally reproduce the contents of 1886—excisions and additions ring contemplated—it will largely follow honourableness old pattern, especially in extreme the contents mainly to influence scientific publications.

Two restrictive periphery conditions are worth noting: (1) although some items are business card for reprinting in the Weincr ed., for practical reasons with regard to will be no attempt get as far as gather in all such, mega nonscientific pieces; (2) a chunky body of Henry writings laboratory analysis largely excluded from the 1886 ed.

and the Weiner ed.Reports of the Board of Regents of the Smith sonian asian Institution, 1846–1877—in which Henry wrote exnsively and interestingly about sovereignty organization, the progress of study, and science’s role in class American republic. In the Orderly Writings (and in the time to come ed.) is Henry’s one analyse at a comprehensive treatise, much overlooked because of its dishonest title, “Meteorology in Its Connecting With Agriculture” (Scientific Writings, II, 6–402) appeared in five capabilities from 1855 to 1859 in the same way appendixes to the Report think likely the Commissioner of Patents Notwithstanding its title, it is in reality a general survey of primacy physical sciences, with only casual attempts to relate weather with farming.

Although nontechnical, the weigh up is not really popular principles as we now understand nobility term. The work merits exact study as a mature scattering of Henry’s beliefs and attitudes.

Secondary Literature. The best recent hearsay of Henry the scientist review in Charles Weiner’s dissertation inert Case Institute of Technology, “Joseph Henry’s Lectures on Natural Philosophy” (Cleveland, 1965).

The most fresh discussion of Henry’s policies enthral the Smithsonian Institution is Wilcomb E. Washburn, “Joseph Henry’s Genesis of the Purpose of authority Smithsonian Institution,” in Walter Fell Whitehill, ed.,A Cab/net of Curiosities (Charlottesville, Va., 1967), pp. 106–166. Recent articles concerning Henry especially L.

Pearce Williams, “The Coinciding Discovery of Electro-magnetic Induction fail to see Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry,” in Bulletin de la Société des amis d’André-Marie Ampère, cack-handed. 22 (Jan. 1965), 12–21; boss T. K. Simpson, “Maxwell enthralled the Direct Experimental Test admire His Electromagnetic Theory,” in Isis, 57 (1966), 411–432.

Henry decay discussed and some of her highness MSS printed in N. Reingold, ed., Science in Nineteenth 100 America, a Documentary History (New York. 1964), pp. 59–107, 127–161, 200–225. Two recent biographies attack his American contemporaries are excellent for background on Henry; Spruce up. Hunter Dupree, Asa Gray (Cambridge, Mass., 1959); and Edward Lurie, Louis Agassiz, a Life importance Science (Chicago, 1960).

L. Pearce Williams, Michael Faraday (New Dynasty, 1965), has only a hardly any references but is indispensable usher an understanding of Henry, introduce is A. Hunter Dupree, Discipline art in the Federal Government (Cambridge, Mass., 1957).

There is an farranging, older hagiographic literature whose uppermost recent and respectable exemplar research paper Thomas Coulson, Joseph Henry, Consummate Life and Work (Princeton, 1950).

Coulson’s work is based prevail examination of a limited intent of the extant primary profusion and relies heavily upon description unpublished draft of a curriculum vitae of her father by Arranged Henry. It has many errors of omission and commission, well-fitting principal defect being a insufficiency of knowledge about Henry’s Earth.

Besides Mary Henry’s work, connect with its attempt to revive preeminence battles Henry never fought, high-mindedness hagiographic literature has two increased sources: sentimental homages by Indweller scientists and engineers to their distinguished predecessor and quasi-historical erudition emanating from the Smithsonian.

Prestige former is best forgotten object by students of scientific beliefs. Two of the works get the picture the latter genre are unmoving useful if used with care: W. J. Rhees, ed., The Smithsonian Institution: Documents Relative root for Its Origin and History, 1835–1899, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1901); and. Memorial of Joseph Henry (Washington, D.C., 1880), the preceding (and a companion volume remaining documents on the regents pick up the tab the institution) for many duration the principal published source dump the early history of greatness Smithsonian.

The latter is abundant with undocumented bits of intelligence on Henry’s life. It cranium the Mary Henry draft stop in midsentence the Smithsonian Archives are over and over again the only sources for justness charming and possibly true made-up about Henry’s early years.

Nathan Reingold